[{"oa_version":"Preprint","quality_controlled":"1","user_id":"c635000d-4b10-11ee-a964-aac5a93f6ac1","acknowledgement":"S.A.F. and C.P. are indebted to the European Research Council under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (Grant Agreement No. 636069), the Austrian Federal Ministry of Science, Research and Economy, and the Austrian Research Promotion Agency (Grant No. 845364). We acknowledge A. Zankel and H. Schroettner for support with SEM measurements. C.P. thanks N. Kostoglou, C. Koczwara, M. Hartmann, and M. Burian for discussions on gas sorption analysis, C++ programming, Monte Carlo modeling, and in situ SAXS experiments, respectively. We thank S. Stadlbauer for help with Karl Fischer titration, R. Riccò for gas sorption measurements, and acknowledge Graz University of Technology for support through the Lead Project LP-03. Likewise, the use of SOMAPP Lab, a core facility supported by the Austrian Federal Ministry of Education, Science and Research, the Graz University of Technology, the University of Graz, and Anton Paar GmbH is acknowledged. S.A.F. is indebted to Institute of Science and Technology Austria (IST Austria) for support. This research was supported by the Scientific Service Units of IST Austria through resources provided by the Electron Microscopy Facility.","publication_identifier":{"issn":["0027-8424"],"eissn":["1091-6490"]},"_id":"9301","article_processing_charge":"No","date_updated":"2023-09-05T13:27:18Z","oa":1,"volume":118,"keyword":["small-angle X-ray scattering","oxygen reduction","disproportionation","Li-air battery"],"author":[{"first_name":"Christian","full_name":"Prehal, Christian","last_name":"Prehal"},{"first_name":"Aleksej","full_name":"Samojlov, Aleksej","last_name":"Samojlov"},{"first_name":"Manfred","full_name":"Nachtnebel, Manfred","last_name":"Nachtnebel"},{"first_name":"Ludek","full_name":"Lovicar, Ludek","last_name":"Lovicar","orcid":"0000-0001-6206-4200","id":"36DB3A20-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87"},{"first_name":"Manfred","last_name":"Kriechbaum","full_name":"Kriechbaum, Manfred"},{"full_name":"Amenitsch, Heinz","last_name":"Amenitsch","first_name":"Heinz"},{"id":"A8CA28E6-CE23-11E9-AD2D-EC27E6697425","full_name":"Freunberger, Stefan Alexander","last_name":"Freunberger","orcid":"0000-0003-2902-5319","first_name":"Stefan Alexander"}],"abstract":[{"lang":"eng","text":"Electrodepositing insulating lithium peroxide (Li2O2) is the key process during discharge of aprotic Li–O2 batteries and determines rate, capacity, and reversibility. Current understanding states that the partition between surface adsorbed and dissolved lithium superoxide governs whether Li2O2 grows as a conformal surface film or larger particles, leading to low or high capacities, respectively. However, better understanding governing factors for Li2O2 packing density and capacity requires structural sensitive in situ metrologies. Here, we establish in situ small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS/WAXS) as a suitable method to record the Li2O2 phase evolution with atomic to submicrometer resolution during cycling a custom-built in situ Li–O2 cell. Combined with sophisticated data analysis, SAXS allows retrieving rich quantitative structural information from complex multiphase systems. Surprisingly, we find that features are absent that would point at a Li2O2 surface film formed via two consecutive electron transfers, even in poorly solvating electrolytes thought to be prototypical for surface growth. All scattering data can be modeled by stacks of thin Li2O2 platelets potentially forming large toroidal particles. Li2O2 solution growth is further justified by rotating ring-disk electrode measurements and electron microscopy. Higher discharge overpotentials lead to smaller Li2O2 particles, but there is no transition to an electronically passivating, conformal Li2O2 coating. Hence, mass transport of reactive species rather than electronic transport through a Li2O2 film limits the discharge capacity. Provided that species mobilities and carbon surface areas are high, this allows for high discharge capacities even in weakly solvating electrolytes. The currently accepted Li–O2 reaction mechanism ought to be reconsidered."}],"citation":{"ista":"Prehal C, Samojlov A, Nachtnebel M, Lovicar L, Kriechbaum M, Amenitsch H, Freunberger SA. 2021. In situ small-angle X-ray scattering reveals solution phase discharge of Li–O2 batteries with weakly solvating electrolytes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 118(14), e2021893118.","short":"C. Prehal, A. Samojlov, M. Nachtnebel, L. Lovicar, M. Kriechbaum, H. Amenitsch, S.A. Freunberger, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118 (2021).","mla":"Prehal, Christian, et al. “In Situ Small-Angle X-Ray Scattering Reveals Solution Phase Discharge of Li–O2 Batteries with Weakly Solvating Electrolytes.” <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>, vol. 118, no. 14, e2021893118, National Academy of Sciences, 2021, doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2021893118\">10.1073/pnas.2021893118</a>.","ama":"Prehal C, Samojlov A, Nachtnebel M, et al. In situ small-angle X-ray scattering reveals solution phase discharge of Li–O2 batteries with weakly solvating electrolytes. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. 2021;118(14). doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2021893118\">10.1073/pnas.2021893118</a>","chicago":"Prehal, Christian, Aleksej Samojlov, Manfred Nachtnebel, Ludek Lovicar, Manfred Kriechbaum, Heinz Amenitsch, and Stefan Alexander Freunberger. “In Situ Small-Angle X-Ray Scattering Reveals Solution Phase Discharge of Li–O2 Batteries with Weakly Solvating Electrolytes.” <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. National Academy of Sciences, 2021. <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2021893118\">https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2021893118</a>.","apa":"Prehal, C., Samojlov, A., Nachtnebel, M., Lovicar, L., Kriechbaum, M., Amenitsch, H., &#38; Freunberger, S. A. (2021). In situ small-angle X-ray scattering reveals solution phase discharge of Li–O2 batteries with weakly solvating electrolytes. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. National Academy of Sciences. <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2021893118\">https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2021893118</a>","ieee":"C. Prehal <i>et al.</i>, “In situ small-angle X-ray scattering reveals solution phase discharge of Li–O2 batteries with weakly solvating electrolytes,” <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>, vol. 118, no. 14. National Academy of Sciences, 2021."},"publication_status":"published","article_number":"e2021893118","main_file_link":[{"open_access":"1","url":"https://doi.org/10.26434/chemrxiv.11447775"}],"isi":1,"external_id":{"isi":["000637398300050"]},"title":"In situ small-angle X-ray scattering reveals solution phase discharge of Li–O2 batteries with weakly solvating electrolytes","year":"2021","doi":"10.1073/pnas.2021893118","acknowledged_ssus":[{"_id":"EM-Fac"}],"publication":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences","issue":"14","status":"public","intvolume":"       118","type":"journal_article","day":"06","date_created":"2021-03-31T07:00:01Z","department":[{"_id":"StFr"},{"_id":"EM-Fac"}],"language":[{"iso":"eng"}],"publisher":"National Academy of Sciences","article_type":"original","date_published":"2021-04-06T00:00:00Z","month":"04"},{"type":"technical_report","day":"01","status":"public","file_date_updated":"2020-07-14T12:48:08Z","page":"63","date_published":"2020-07-01T00:00:00Z","month":"07","language":[{"iso":"eng"}],"publisher":"IST Austria","department":[{"_id":"StFr"}],"has_accepted_license":"1","date_created":"2020-06-30T07:37:39Z","file":[{"file_name":"20200612_JPS_review_Li_metal_submitted.pdf","file_size":2612498,"date_created":"2020-07-02T07:36:04Z","checksum":"d183ca1465a1cbb4f8db27875cd156f7","date_updated":"2020-07-14T12:48:08Z","access_level":"open_access","content_type":"application/pdf","relation":"main_file","file_id":"8076","creator":"dernst"}],"publication_status":"submitted","citation":{"mla":"Varzi, Alberto, et al. <i>Current Status and Future Perspectives of Lithium Metal Batteries</i>. IST Austria, doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.15479/AT:ISTA:8067\">10.15479/AT:ISTA:8067</a>.","ama":"Varzi A, Thanner K, Scipioni R, et al. <i>Current Status and Future Perspectives of Lithium Metal Batteries</i>. IST Austria doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.15479/AT:ISTA:8067\">10.15479/AT:ISTA:8067</a>","short":"A. Varzi, K. Thanner, R. Scipioni, D. Di Lecce, J. Hassoun, S. Dörfler, H. Altheus, S. Kaskel, C. Prehal, S.A. Freunberger, Current Status and Future Perspectives of Lithium Metal Batteries, IST Austria, n.d.","ista":"Varzi A, Thanner K, Scipioni R, Di Lecce D, Hassoun J, Dörfler S, Altheus H, Kaskel S, Prehal C, Freunberger SA. Current status and future perspectives of Lithium metal batteries, IST Austria, 63p.","ieee":"A. Varzi <i>et al.</i>, <i>Current status and future perspectives of Lithium metal batteries</i>. IST Austria.","apa":"Varzi, A., Thanner, K., Scipioni, R., Di Lecce, D., Hassoun, J., Dörfler, S., … Freunberger, S. A. (n.d.). <i>Current status and future perspectives of Lithium metal batteries</i>. IST Austria. <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.15479/AT:ISTA:8067\">https://doi.org/10.15479/AT:ISTA:8067</a>","chicago":"Varzi, Alberto, Katharina Thanner, Roberto Scipioni, Daniele Di Lecce, Jusef Hassoun, Susanne Dörfler, Holger Altheus, Stefan Kaskel, Christian Prehal, and Stefan Alexander Freunberger. <i>Current Status and Future Perspectives of Lithium Metal Batteries</i>. IST Austria, n.d. <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.15479/AT:ISTA:8067\">https://doi.org/10.15479/AT:ISTA:8067</a>."},"keyword":["Battery","Lithium metal","Lithium-sulphur","Lithium-air","All-solid-state"],"author":[{"last_name":"Varzi","full_name":"Varzi, Alberto","first_name":"Alberto"},{"first_name":"Katharina","last_name":"Thanner","full_name":"Thanner, Katharina"},{"last_name":"Scipioni","full_name":"Scipioni, Roberto","first_name":"Roberto"},{"first_name":"Daniele","full_name":"Di Lecce, Daniele","last_name":"Di Lecce"},{"full_name":"Hassoun, Jusef","last_name":"Hassoun","first_name":"Jusef"},{"first_name":"Susanne","full_name":"Dörfler, Susanne","last_name":"Dörfler"},{"last_name":"Altheus","full_name":"Altheus, Holger","first_name":"Holger"},{"first_name":"Stefan","last_name":"Kaskel","full_name":"Kaskel, Stefan"},{"last_name":"Prehal","full_name":"Prehal, Christian","first_name":"Christian"},{"first_name":"Stefan Alexander","full_name":"Freunberger, Stefan Alexander","last_name":"Freunberger","orcid":"0000-0003-2902-5319","id":"A8CA28E6-CE23-11E9-AD2D-EC27E6697425"}],"abstract":[{"text":"With the lithium-ion technology approaching its intrinsic limit with graphite-based anodes, lithium metal is recently receiving renewed interest from the battery community as potential high capacity anode for next-generation rechargeable batteries. In this focus paper, we review the main advances in this field since the first attempts in the\r\nmid-1970s. Strategies for enabling reversible cycling and avoiding dendrite growth are thoroughly discussed, including specific applications in all-solid-state (polymeric and inorganic), Lithium-sulphur and Li-O2 (air) batteries. A particular attention is paid to review recent developments in regard of prototype manufacturing and current state-ofthe-art of these battery technologies with respect to the 2030 targets of the EU Integrated Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SET-Plan) Action 7.","lang":"eng"}],"oa":1,"date_updated":"2023-08-22T09:20:36Z","article_processing_charge":"No","user_id":"8b945eb4-e2f2-11eb-945a-df72226e66a9","oa_version":"Published Version","_id":"8067","publication_identifier":{"issn":["2664-1690"]},"year":"2020","doi":"10.15479/AT:ISTA:8067","title":"Current status and future perspectives of Lithium metal batteries","alternative_title":["IST Austria Technical Report"],"ddc":["540"],"related_material":{"record":[{"status":"public","relation":"later_version","id":"8361"}]}}]